July 12 ちょっとしたメモ 「おおスザンナ」とcopyright

July 12, 2008 (Saturday)

   「おおスザンナ」の記事を書いている途中で読んだ資料の中で何度も copyright という言葉に遭遇したのだが、記事では訳さずにあえてcopyright と書いてきたような気がする。まだ国際的なcopyright がちゃんとしてなくて１９世紀中葉のアメリカ作家たちが海賊版に悩まされていたみたいなことは知識として知っていたのだが、具体的な内実は知らなかった（し今も知らない）。一方なんでコピーライトというのだろうと前から気にはなっていた。で、まだ著作権のこともcopyrightのこともよくわからないのだけれど、メモ的に書いてから、さらにもっと図式的に書いてみる。

　　ベルヌ条約は、長い名称というか原語はわからんので英語の名称 "the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works" を訳せば「文学および美術作品の保護のためのベルン協定」 ということになります。これは著作（者の）権（利）は「作物」がつくられたときに automatic に発生するという「無方式主義」に立っています(5条)。方式というのは具体的にいえば著作権登録とか著作権表示のことです。無方式主義の反対が「方式主義」で、登録や表示が必要です。ベルヌ条約はヴィクトル・ユゴーとかフランスの作家や芸術家の主張がもともと背景にあって、フランス語でいう"droit d'auteur" 「著者〈作者）の権利」が国際的に認められるものとして提言されたようです。「ベルヌ条約」の日本語訳を日本語版ウィキペディアで見ると、たとえば第一条は「この条約が適用される国は、文学的及び美術的著作物に関する著作者の権利の保護のための同盟を形成する。」となっている。英文(Wikipedia)だとArticle 1 は "The countries to which this Convention applies constitute a Union for the protection of the rights of authors in their literary and artistic works. " です。「著作物」は　"works"、「著作者」は "authors"。

　　「著作権」という言葉が日本語のほうで最初に出てくるのは第七条の二ですが、「前条の規定は、著作権が著作物の共同著作者の共有に属する場合にも適用する。ただし、著作者の死亡の時から計算する期間は、共同著作者のうちの最後の生存者の死亡の時から計算する。」とあります。これは英文では "The provisions of the preceding Article shall also apply in the case of a work of joint authorship, provided that the terms measured from the death of the author shall be calculated from the death of the last surviving author." です。日本語のほうの「著作権」にあたるのは英語には・・・・・・ないです。

　　しかし第十四条の二で「映画の著作物は、翻案され又は複製された著作物の著作者の権利を害することなく、原著作物として保護されるものとし、映画の著作物について著作権を有する者は、原著作物の著作者と同一の権利（前条に定める権利を含む。）を享有する。⒜　 映画の著作物について著作権を有する者を決定することは、保護が要求される同盟国の法令の定めるところによる。」とかではじめて英語でも "owner of copyright" というフレーズが出てきます。しかしこれはおそらく戦後に追加された部分だろうと思われ。

　著作権が自動的に発生する、という有名な箇所は五条です――

ARTICLE 5

(1) Authors shall enjoy, in respect of works for which they are protected under this Convention, in countries of the Union other than the country of origin, the rights which their respective laws do now or may hereafter grant to their nationals, as well as the rights specially granted by this Convention.

(2) The enjoyment and the exercise of these rights shall not be subject to any formality; such enjoyment and such exercise shall be independent of the existence of protection in the country of origin of the work. Consequently, apart from the provisions of this Convention, the extent of protection, as well as the means of redress afforded to the author to protect his rights, shall be governed exclusively by the laws of the country where protection is claimed.

(3) Protection in the country of origin is governed by domestic law. However, when the author is not a national of the country of origin of the work for which he is protected under this Convention, he shall enjoy in that country the same rights as national authors.

(4) The country of origin shall be considered to be

• (a) in the case of works first published in a country of the Union, that country; in the case of works published simultaneously in several countries of the Union which grant different terms of protection, the country whose legislation grants the shortest term of protection;
• (b) in the case of works published simultaneously in a country outside the Union and in a country of the Union, the latter country;
• (c) in the case of unpublished works or of works first published in a country outside the Union, without simultaneous publication in a country of the Union, the country of the Union of which the author is a national, provided that:
  • (i) when these are cinematographic works the maker of which has his headquarters or his habitual residence in a country of the Union, the country of origin shall be that country, and
  • (ii) when these are works of architecture erected in a country of the Union or other artistic works incorporated in a building or other structure located in a country of the Union, the country of origin shall be that country.

 　　copyright という言葉は使われておらず、日本語訳でも著作権と訳していないのでした。要するに「著者の権利」という姿勢が強い（強かった）ことがわかります。

　　さて、アメリカは「方式主義」です。アメリカと、それに先立ってイギリスが、つまりAnglo-Saxon 系が大事にしたのは、著者の権利と同時に、あるいは著者の権利より前に、出版の権利だった、と考えられます。

　　えーと主観をメモろうかと思いましたが、客観（かどうかはわからんがWikipediaをまた( ..)φメモメモ――

History

Main article: History of copyright law

Copyright was invented after the advent of the printing press and with wider public literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers' monopolies at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Charles II of England was concerned by the unregulated copying of books and passed the Licensing Act of 1662 by Act of Parliament ^[1], which established a register of licensed books and required a copy to be deposited with the Stationers Company, essentially continuing the licensing of material that had long been in effect.

The British Statute of Anne (1709) further alluded to individual rights or the artist, beginning: "Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing... Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors... to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families:..."^[2] A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognized a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. An irrevocable right to be recognized as the work's creator appears in some countries' copyright laws.

The Statute of Anne was the first real copyright act, and gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired. Copyright has grown from a legal concept regulating copying rights in the publishing of books and maps to one with a significant effect on nearly every modern industry, covering such items as sound recordings, films, photographs, software, and architectural works.

The Copyright Clause of the United States Constitution (1787) authorized copyright legislation: "To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries." That is, by guaranteeing them a period of time in which they alone could profit from their works, they would be enabled and encouraged to invest the time required to create them, and this would be good for society as a whole. A right to profit from the work has been the philosophical underpinning for much legislation extending the duration of copyright, to the life of the creator and beyond, to his heirs.

The 1886 Berne Convention first established recognition of copyrights among sovereign nations, rather than merely bilaterally. Under the Berne Convention, copyrights for creative works do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically in force at creation: an author need not "register" or "apply for" a copyright in countries adhering to the Berne Convention. As soon as a work is "fixed", that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all copyrights in the work, and to any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires. The Berne Convention also resulted in foreign authors being treated equivalently to domestic authors, in any country signed onto the Convention. The UK signed the Berne Convention in 1887 but did not implement large parts of it until 100 years later with the passage of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act of 1988. The USA did not sign the Berne Convention until 1989.

　　メモなので訳している余裕なし。しかし日本語ウィキペディアの「著作権」のこのあたりは英語版を参照しているかもしれない。

　　　えーと、ここで、まず第一の図式

無方式主義　　　ベルン条約→万国著作権条約　の基本的な姿勢  "authorship" 　著者の側

方式主義　　　　　イギリスとアメリカ　　"copyright" 　言葉の由来からしてもともとは出版者（＝著者の場合もあるが）〔もしかすると"publisher" ?〕の側

　　日本は無方式主義を基本的に据えてきたけれども出版社やアメリカ的影響で折衷的な法律？

　　　あ、なんかメモを逸脱しそうなのでこのへんでやめときます。なお、明らかに間違いと思ったら訂正します（基本的に個人的メモなので、正確性を期待されないように。メモでもなんか参考になればうれしいですが）。

    しかし、日本の著作権法が第一節の第二条で著作物を「思想又は感情を創作的に表現したものであつて、文芸、学術、美術又は音楽の範囲に属するものをいう。」と定義しているのはベルヌ条約的、「著者・作家」尊重的であっても、いかにも実態からズレている。株式概況や天気予報のどこが思想や感情を創作的に表現しているというのか。

タグ：メモ copyright 著作権 おおスザンナ